Space Library

Dedication by Russian and U.S. Space Officials

The Russia and U.S. Library of

SPACE SCIENCE AND EXPLORATION

From Competition to Cooperation

Two scenes from the four-wall-and-ceiling mural entitled, "From Competition To Cooperation" . The Mural is a timeline which traces the development of space and space science from the earliest days to the future. The scene, above right, is from the Competition period---from Sputnik through the 1960s-and features four pioneer astronauts and cosmonauts: Gagarin, Glenn, Tereshkova, Armstrong. The scene at left---the period of Cooperation ---from Soyuz-Apollo (1975) to the Space Station. The painting contains 46 elements in all, which are described below.

THE LIBRARY

The Library is a unique institution where one can read, research and view resources on the space programs of Russia and the United States at one location. While the Library has official liaisons with NASA and the Russian Aviation and Space Agency (Rosaviakosmos), to which much of the credit is owed for the its existence, the Library does not pretend to have the resources of those institutions. Instead, the niche of the Library is to allow comparative research, study and observation of both space programs. Visitors to the Library will have access to a range of books, photos, CDs, DVDs and videos provided by NASA, Rosaviakosmos and FRCC.

The Mural - "FROM COMPETITION TO COOPERATION"

1960s Competitors: VonBraun and his Apollo rocket; Korolev and his Soyuz rocket

1975 - Cooperation Begins - the two famous vehicles hook up in space: Soyuz-Apollo 7/17/1975

The centerpiece of the Library is the four-wall-and-ceiling mural, "From Competition to Cooperation" --a timeline of the Russian and American development of space science and the exploration of space. The title of the Mural reflects the thesis of the Library about the two space programs: "What began as a fearful military competition between the U.S. and Russia for space domination, is evolving into a space partnership for peace. "

References in the text below in BOLD are to figures and objects in the Mural

ANCIENT FASCINATION WITH SPACE

The mural begins by acknowledging that, from the earliest times, the human being has gazed at the heavens with wonder and curiosity as to what lies beyond the Earth.

This early fascination with space, and the imagination of space travel, is represented in the mural by Icarus of Greek mythology, and Jules Verne's "From the Earth to the Moon" (1865) and its sequel, "Round the Moon" (1870).

Icarus' father Daedalus built wings for them to fly of feathers and wax, but Icarus flew too close to the sun which melted the wax, and he fell back to earth.

Jules Verne's novels involved a Baltimore gun club which built a giant cannon that fired its bullet, a capsule carrying 3 men, to moon; and then return to Earth. The French author's advanced scientific mind and vision was revealed when he discussed weightlessness in space, elliptical orbits, and firing rockets to escape lunar gravity and return to Earth.

Icarus flew too close to the sun which melted his wings of wax and feathers, and he fell back to Earth.

In Jules Verne's 1865 scientific novel, the capsule misses the moon and enters an elliptical orbit whereby there are two fates: the capsule will eventually be drawn to the moon's surface by gravity, or remain in orbit forever. There the book ends: the capsule has 2 months of air and 1 year of food remaining. In the 1870 sequel, the travelers observe and map the moon, fire the rockets meant to brake their fall to the surface to send them back to Earth, where they splash down in the Pacific Ocean and are rescued.

They were favorite books of Tsiolkovsky, who said it inspired his interest in rocketry and space travel, and Goddard, who wrote a "corrected" version substituting a multi staged rocket for the cannon.

THE BEGINNING OF ROCKET SCIENCE

The first part of the title of the Library "Space Science..." includes the earliest rockets, considered to be the 11th Century Chinese Gunpowder Rockets. The Chinese began experimenting by stuffing gunpowder into sections of bamboo tubing. Rocket history includes the development of improved gunpowder by 13th century English monk, Roger Bacon, which extended the range of rockets, and finally, the gunpowder rockets developed by William Congreve, the English artillery expert, which were used in the wars against Napoleon. When the Congreve rockets rained on Fort McHenry in Baltimore during the War of 1812 (night of September 13-14, 1814) they were to be memorialized with words written by American observer, and Georgetown lawyer, Francis Scott Key (who was detained that night on a British ship offshore)---"the rockets red glare, bombs bursting in air"---words sung everyday in the American National Anthem. (Francis Scott Key's home, now the Key park, was located next to the bridge across the Potomac, later named Key Bridge.)

The 11th Century Chinese gunpowder rockets---the beginning of rocket science. The Chinese began experimenting by stuffing gunpowder into sections of bamboo tubing.

TSIOLKOVSKY AND GODDARD

Space Science is next represented in the mural by the two most famous Russian and American rocket science pioneers, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky and Robert Goddard. Both scientists realized that space travel beyond the earth's gravity would not be possible in gunpowder rockets. Their theories and experiments formed the basis of modern rocketry and space travel.

Tsiolkovsky began working in the 1880s on his theories of the required speed, and the type and quantity of fuel, necessary for flights into space. In 1903 he published The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices, which detailed his theories about rocket propulsion. He believed (later proven correct) that liquid fuels, which were ignited in stages (which he called a "rocket train"), would be required to leave the Earth's gravity and enter into orbit. His writings also included artificial earth satellites and manned space platforms.

Goddard, in 1919, as a college professor of physics, had turned his attention to liquid fuels and published his classic treatise, A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes, under the auspices of the Smithsonian, in which he advanced methods of traveling to the moon and other celestial bodies. In 1926, he launched the world's first liquid fuel rocket on his Aunt's farm in Massachusetts---the flight lasted 2.5 seconds and reached an altitude of 40 ft. Between 1930-1941, in a remote area of New Mexico, he launched larger and more complex rockets, developed rocket steering devices and other devices. He also proved by experiment: rocket propulsion in a vacuum, and therefore---as Tsiolkovsky had theorized years before---rocket propulsion would work in space.

Tsiolkovsky and Goddard - the fathers of rocket science in Russia and the United States.

TSIOLKOVSKY at age 9 lost his hearing from Scarlet Fever. When his Mother died four years later, he was obliged to study at home. Books became his friends, particularly mathematics and physics. While still a teenager he began to speculate on space travel. At age 16 he went to Moscow where he attended lectures in science with the aid of an ear trumpet. At age of 20 he passed the teachers examimation and held teaching posts in two small towns while he continued his research in astronautics and aeronautics. To test air friction on all-metal dirigibles he built the first wind tunnel in Russia "Air-Dynamic Tube"(1897), with his own funds. (Example of "simultaneous invention" - the Wright brothers, without any knowledge of Tsiolkovsky, built a wind tunnel in 1901.) The Academy of Sciences funded a larger wind tunnel for aircraft aerodynamics, but he soon began to devote more attention to space problems. In 1895 he wrote a book, Dreams of Earth and Sky. Tsiolkovsky later proposed the multi-stage rocket, (a"rocket train"), artificial earth satellites and manned space platforms.

GODDARD, on October 19, 1899, at age 17, (a day he always called his "Anniversary Day") climbed a cherry tree in his back yard in Massachusetts and imagined building a craft to travel to Mars; he said he felt for the first time his existence was "purposive". After the launch of his first liquid fuel rocket in 1926 which traveled 40 feet, The New York Times was harshly critical of Goddard---and reported that the "Moony" had only missed the moon by 240,000 miles. Others were supportive including Charles Lindbergh, who, shortly after his transatlantic flight, arranged funding from the Guggenheim Foundation for Goddard to continue his experiments in New Mexico. There he launched larger and more complex rockets, developed the first automatic steering device for rockets, and many other devices which were the forerunner of the V2 in Germany. (Wernher von Braun said, "Until 1936, Goddard was ahead of us all".) He was the first to prove rocket propulsion in a vacuum. (In an earlier stinging criticism of Goddard, the Times had said that was impossible because in space there was no air for the rocket exhaust to push against.) Because of a tight budget, he also developed the parachute landing for his rockets, so that components could be recovered and reused, and not destroyed on impact.

International "cross pollination" in space science and dreams of space: Influenced by Jules Verne, Tsiolkovsky also wrote science fiction: On the Moon (1893) and Outside the Earth (1918)...Goddard's 1899 dream of space travel to Mars (above) was inspired by the 1897 Boston newspaper serial of War of the Worlds by H.G.Wells...A copy of Tsiolkovsky's work, with Wernher vonBraun's handwritten notes on nearly every page was found at Pennemunde at the end of World War II.

THE SPACE RACE

The "Exploration" phase begins with the "Space Race", represented by the two racing astronaut/cosmonaut figures. The title of the mural reflects the fact that the exploration of space by both countries, began with a fearful Competition during the Cold War, an extension of the "Arms Race", when each side was concerned that the other would use developments in space and rocketry as weapons against the other. After the Cuban Missile Crisis ended in October 1962, the Space Race evolved into a competition for "firsts" in space. The general consensus is that the Space Race ended with the Soyuz-Apollo handshake in 1975.

The 50-50 policy of the Library reflects the actual scorecard of the Space Race when each side scored numerous major "firsts". The Spacer Racers above is a corrected adaptation of a 1960s cartoon which had the uniform colors reversed. The racers are painted in a "dead heat" or "photo finish".

SPUTNIK

October 4, 1957

The Space Race began on October 4, 1957, when the USSR launched Sputnik, the first artificial satellite, into space. Not much larger than a basketball (1 ft., 11 inches in diameter) with 4 antennas, it was highly polished to reflect the sun's heat and prevent it from prematurely burning up the two radio transmitters inside. It orbited the earth every 96 minutes with its two transmitters signaling "beep, beep". Launched during the International Geophysical Year (IGY - May 1957 - December 1958), which called for artificial satellites, Sputnik enabled scientists to learn more about the Earth's upper atmosphere. But its greatest impact was to accelerate the competition in space between the two Cold War enemies, the U.S. and USSR. The U.S., which began planning in 1955 for an IGY satellite weighing 3.5 lbs, scrapped those plans (Sputnik weighed 183 lbs) and Wernher vonBraun accelerated development on a a new satellite, Explorer I, which was launched in January 1958. But the Russians, in November 1957, had already launched Sputnik II, carrying the first passenger into space, the dog, Laika. Sputnik also led to the creation of NASA which Congress passed in July 1958. The Space Race had begun.

Sputnik was developed by Sergei Korolev and launched on Korolev's Soyuz rocket. The U.S. had also begun working (1955) on a satellite to launch during the IGY, a 3.5 pound satellite named Vanguard---but the success of Sputnik (183 lbs) changed everything. Wernher vonBraun accelerated work on a new satellite, Explorer I, which the U.S. launched in January 1958---also during IGY, it discovered the Van Allen radiation belt. But the scientific discovery was overshadowed by the Space Race: the Russians, in November 1957, had already launched Sputnik II, carrying a dog, Laika. In the development of Sputnik I, Korolev ordered a mock-up Sputnik. Korolev harshly criticized an employee who had failed to highly polish the mock-up like the original---"This ball will be exhibited in museums!", he shouted.

On October 9, 1957, a White House Press Release extends congratulations of President Eisenhower to the scientists who built Sputnik---remarkable considering the cold war climate. At the same time the President pushed legislation creating NASA---the following July Congress had it on Eisenhower's desk for signature. America was determined to catch up.

KOROLEV AND SOYUZ. VON BRAUN AND SATURN V. THE V2.

Two rocket scientists quickly rose to head the competing Soviet and American space programs, Sergei Korolev and Wernher von Braun. While they never met or spoke, they both had survived difficult times in their early years. Both had been arrested by secret police and thrown in prison: Korolev by the NKVD during Stalin purges for sabotaging the rocket program (totally false), and von Braun by the SS for being more concerned with rockets for space than weapons (probably true). However, both scientists were released as they were too valuable to be kept in prison.

Wernher von Braun and Sergei Korolev headed the two superpower rocket programs after WWII. Insets show the business end of vonBraun's Saturn V and Korolev's Soyuz---and their similar 5-section tails. VonBraun and Korolev, while they never met or spoke, led the rocket programs of the United States and Russia which now work in partnership. At the end of World War II, both the Americans and Russians captured German rocket scientists and V2 rockets, which made vital contributions to the space programs of both countries. Among the notes of vonBraun's group captured by the Russians was a book by Tsiolkovsky embellished by vonBraun's comments and notes.

Sergei Korolev, after World War II, headed the Russian rocket group which developed the Soyuz rocket. The Soyuz launched Sputnik, Yuri Gagarin, Valentina Tereshkova and the entire Vostok series. The highly reliable Soyuz remains in use today and is used by U.S. corporations and other countries to launch commerical satellites from Russia. In 2003, a spare Soyuz capsule parked at the International Space Station returned two Americans and one Russian safely to Earth after the Columbia shuttle disaster grounded the U.S. shuttle fleet. Korolev's death in 1966 in the midst of the Space Race was certainly a loss to the Soviet space program.

Wernher von Braun, defected to the American forces at the end of WWII, was brought to the U.S. and headed the group of American rocket scientists which later developed the Saturn V Apollo rocket, von Braun's greatest acheivement. In May 1945, he escaped death at the hands of the Nazis and surrendered his group to the American Army in southern Germany. (The RCC Space Library has a fascinating original research report entitled, The "Indiana Jones" escape of Wernher von Braun from Nazi Germany.) With the help of von Braun, the U.S. forces captured and shipped to the U.S. parts for 100 V2 Rockets, which von Braun and his team of German scientists had developed.

The V2 (or A4) rocket became the embryo for the U.S. and Russian space programs. The V2s were taken by Americans and Russians from stockpiles at the underground facility at Mittelwerk where the Germans were producing 35 V2s per day. (V2 production was moved to Mittelwerk after the Allies bombed Pennemunde, the original site.)

The Americans, with vonBraun and his German scientists, in a program managed by General Electric, launched the first V2 in the U.S. in 1946, at White Sands, New Mexico (Von Braun's team was housed at nearby Ft.Bliss). The Russians and their German scientists launched their first V2 on October 18, 1947, at Kapustin Yar. Witnesses said that "Ustinov held Korolev in a bear hug and engaged in a celebratory dance." Both intial American and Russian launches were V2s made entirely of the captured German components. In subsequent launches, the Americans and Russians modified the components to improve the missile's design and performance.

Named the A4 by von Braun, it was renamed V2 by Goebbels ("Vengeance") in a failed attempt to boost morale in the losing war effort.

LUNA SERIES - 24 Moon Missions

1959-1976

After the launch of Sputnik I and II in 1957, and the American Explorer I in 1958, the Soviets, in 1959, launched Luna I - the first spacecraft to leave the Earth's gravity. Beginning in 1959, both the Soviets and U.S. sent probes to the moon with early observations being the side facing the Earth. On October 7, 1959, the far side of the moon was first imaged by the Luna 3 probe. From 1959-1976, the Soviet Luna series (Luna 1 - Luna 24) studied the moon. With the Luna series, the Soviet program was the first to travel to the moon, to photograph the far side, to crash-land on the moon, to orbit the moon, and on February 3, 1966, Luna 9 made the first soft landing on the moon and transmitted back to Earth the first panoramic pictures of the lunar surface. Luna 16 (1970), Luna 20 (1972) and Luna 24 (1976) scooped up Moon soil and returned it to Earth.

Luna 9 was the first space craft to make a soft landing on the moon (February 3, 1966). The Soviet Luna series was also the first to travel to the moon, photograph the far side and orbit the moon.

YURI GAGARIN

April 12, 1961

"Let's Go!"

On April 12, 1961, Yuri Gagarin uttered the words, "Let's Go!" and became the first human in space when his Vostok 1 capsule, atop a Soyuz rocket was fired into space. He orbited the Earth once, at a height of 188 miles, spending 1 hour and 48 minutes in space. After re-entering the atmosphere, he ejected from the capsule and parachuted to Earth where he received enormous acclaim---and permanent fame in the records of history. A joyful, enthusiastic person by nature, he received, and enjoyed, the numerous parades, hero's welcomes and celebrations of his feat---not only in his own country, but wherever he toured.

The first human in space, Yuri Gagarin, had the joyful, enthusiastic personality to match his daring---making him a real life hero.

JFK & AMERICA'S DETERMINATION TO CATCH UP

1961

While a month after Gagarin's feat, the first American, Alan Shepard, went into space---a suborbital flight lasting 15 minutes---the U.S. still trailed the Soviets in the Space Race. Undoubtedly prompted by a dent in national pride caused by the success of Sputnik and the Gagarin flight, President Kennedy, in May 1961, announced the goal of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to Earth before the end of the decade.

JOHN GLENN

February 1962

"God Speed, John Glenn"

The U.S. finally got something to cheer about on February 20, 1962, when John Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth. Packed into the small "Friendship 7" capsule, and with all America watching on TV, he was fired into space with the words from Mission Control, "God Speed, John Glenn." When, after 3 orbits, he returned to the atmosphere, and the heat from re-entry on his capsule ended any radio communication, Americans held their breath for several minutes---a faulty telemetry reading caused NASA to worry that his heat shield had come loose---until the capsule's parachutes were visible from the recovery ship Noah, and he splashed down safely in the Atlantic Ocean. Considered a national treasure, like Gagarin to the Russians, President Kennedy refused to let Glenn fly again into space. However, in 1998, at the age of 77 and a member of the U.S. Senate, John Glenn flew again, aboard the U.S. Space Shuttle, to test the effects of space on the elderly. Thirty six years after his first flight, John Glenn again returned safely to Earth---and with no ill effects.

John Glenn, America's first major space hero, orbited the Earth and returned to ticker tape parades and adulation across the U.S. His "Friendship 7" capsule, showing the marks of fire from the friction of re-entering the atmosphere, is on display in the lobby of the NASA Museum in Washington, D.C.

THE SPACE RACE AND THE CUBAN MISSLE CRISIS

1962

The competition between the USSR and the U.S. in the Space Race and the Arms Race increased the Cold War tension between the two countries to dangerous levels: each feared that the improved rockets would be utilized to carry nuclear warheads against the other. The high profile success of the Soviet space rockets, added to the known prowess of their military ICBMs, caused the U.S. to worry about a "missle gap." The Russians, concerned that the U.S. had many more nuclear warheads in its arsenal, attempted to level the playing field by installing missiles in Cuba. The doctrine of "mutual assured destruction" (the dangerous nuclear deterrent policy of both countries, with the appropriate acronym, MAD)---involved an escalation in the nuclear arms race, to the point where Winston Churchill said the extra warheads would only make the "rubble bounce." The civilized world came the closest to self-annihilation in October 1962, in the Cuban Missile Crisis. Fortunately, wise minds prevailed: Kennedy agreed not to invade Cuba and Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles. From that point on, much of the fear that the two Cold War opponents would use space for military attack, dissipated.

VALENTINA TERESHKOVA - June 13-16, 1963 - The First Lady of Space

"A Light Blue Band. This is the Earth. How Beautiful it is!"

The year after the Cuban Missile Crisis, another first was achieved in the Space Race, June 13-16, 1963, when Valentina Tereshkova became the first woman in space. A sport parachutist with 162 parachute jumps, she had been chosen to compete in the grueling physical and mental training with other candidates for the space program. She was selected for space, and on June 13, 1963, she was launched as the pilot of Vostok 6, code named "Seagull". During her flight, she took films of the Earth ("horizon was luminous over the poles"), moon and cities (cities were "clearly defined at night"), but most important were her tests of the spacecraft's control systems. On Gagarin's mission, the systems were automatic and controlled from the ground. If the automatic system failed, she would have to fly the craft manually to get the proper angle for re-entry---too sharp an angle, the capsule would burn up; not sharp enough, it would skip off the atmosphere into outer space. On June 19, on the 45th orbit, she performed this major goal of the mission: manual orientation of the space craft. During the experiment in manual orientation, she successfully flew the craft manually, keeping Vostok 6 in the correct attitude for re-entry for a full fifteen minutes. She would be the only woman in space for two decades.

"The First Lady of Space." Valentina Tereshkova conducted a critical experiment during her flight by flying her space craft manually, rather than on automatic pilot controlled from the ground as were most of the pioneer flights. The reason for the experiment was that should the automatic systems ever fail, Korolev wanted to know if his cosmonauts could control the craft manually to get it into the right attitude (angle) for re-entry. Tereshkova performed the experiment successfully. Russians say she never came down to Earth: her career remained at the highest levels---she did not retire a space hero: Major General in the Russian Air Force; Ph.D. in Technical Sciences Engineering; elected to the Russian (Soviet) legislature; she speaks regularly around the world. For 20 years (1985-2004), headed a cabinet level agency in the Soviet, Yeltsin and Putin Administrations with offices in 62 countries. She has a crater on the Moon named after her. In 2001 she was named "Woman of the Century" in London.

Despite the high-risk and life-threatening danger of the early Russian and American space flights, the on-board camera recorded a confident smile and observations about the beauty of Earth: "I see the horizon. A light blue, a beautiful band. This is the Earth. How beautiful it is!" (A photograph of the horizon blue band has been provided by Valentina Tereshkova to the Space Library.) Like Gagarin before her, Valentina Tereshkova became a household word, not only in her country, but abroad. She did not retire a space hero. She stayed in the Russian Air Force and achieved the rank of Major General. She received a Ph.D. in Technical Sciences Engineering. She was elected to the Russian (Soviet) legislature. She speaks regularly in her country and abroad, including the U.N., on numerous issues. For 20 years (1985-2004) she headed a cabinet level agency (RCISCC) in the Soviet, Yeltsin and Putin Administrations with offices and cultural centres in 62 countries. The RCISCC, often called the "People Diplomacy Organization", is the parent organization of the Russian Cultural Centre. She has a crater on the Moon named after her. In 2001 she was named "Woman of the Century" in London.

THE APOLLO PROGRAM

With all the Soviet successes and "firsts" in the Soyuz and Luna programs, the only way for the U.S. to catch up would be to attempt to achieve the first manned flights to the moon. Congress and NASA allocated enormous resources for the Apollo program. Unlike Korolev's utilitarian Soyuz rocket, von Braun's expensive SaturnV rockets, designed only for the Apollo moon program, would not be used again. The most dramatic Apollo flights, other than the Apollo 11 landing, were the Apollo 8 and Apollo 13 flights. The Apollo 8 flight, commanded by Frank Borman, made the first "TLI" (Trans Lunar Insertion, i.e. to circle the moon and, hopefully, return)---which meant that all communication with Earth was blacked out when their capsule was on the back side of the Moon---including whether the insertion of the capsule had the right angle to return to the front side and home (it did). The malfunction of Apollo 13 ("Houston, we have a problem") which caused the mission to be aborted half-way to the moon, meant that the crew had to return to Earth in a section of the space craft not designed for that purpose. Called a "successful failure", it was the most dramatic rescue in the American space program.

NEIL ARMSTRONG

July 20, 1969

"The Eagle has landed."

"That's One Small Step for a Man, One Giant Leap for Mankind"

It was the Apollo 11 moon landing that evened the score in the Space Race, and with equal impact worldwide of Sputnik and Gagarin. Americans stayed up late the night of July 20, 1969, and watched as Neil Armstrong came down the ladder of the Lunar Module and stepped on lunar soil with the words, "That's one small step for (a) man, one giant leap for Mankind." While shipmate Michael Collins orbited above in the Command Module, Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin conducted their experiments on the moon surface, including collecting 48.5 lbs of soil and rock. Like all space flights in the Space Race of the 1960s, Apollo 11 was not without life-and-death drama. As they were descending to the Moon's surface, computers failed and Neil Armstrong had to land the craft manually. In addition, because the pre-selected landing spot had a large boulder (if the craft landed on the boulder and tipped over, it could not be righted), Armstrong manually hovered the craft searching for a smooth spot as the allocated fuel was running out. At 238,000 miles from home, with limited oxygen, and no possibility of rescue, the worst case scenario in the back of everyone's mind, which no one talked about, only heightened the suspense.

Neil Armstrong. The first human to set foot on another world. The moon landing of Apollo 11 achieved President Kennedy's goal for a man on the moon by the end of the decade(1960s)---and evened the score with the Russians who had stunned the world with the Sputnik and Gagarin achievements. While one of America's most historic courageous figures, Armstrong does not seek publicity, rarely gives interviews---and is more concerned with science than the role of hero. In a recent address at the National Press Club, he presented a paper on the top 20 scientific achievements of the 20th century; he rated electrification as No. 1.

After a few dramatic seconds of silence, came the words, "Houston, the Eagle has landed." The Russians had lost cosmonauts in Soyuz 1 and Soyuz 11, and the Americans in Apollo 1 (and later the Challenger and Columbia), but fortunately, the astronauts of America's most famous achievement, Apollo 11, like Gagarin in Vostok 1, returned home safely. Not knowing whether the astronauts had picked up some strange bacteria on the Moon, they were quarantined for a period on the recovery ship. But it wasn't long before they were traveling down Broadway as New Yorkers threw a record amount of ticker tape down on America's new heroes.Though a major "first" for the Americans in the Space Race, and while the Cold War with the perceived enemy did not end until 1990, it is interesting that in a major Soviet space textbook published in 1985, the write-up of Neil Armstrong is given more space than any Russian cosmonaut except Gagarin.

COSMONAUTS AND ASTRONAUTS RETURN TO EARTH

In returning to Earth in the 1960s, the American astronauts and their capsules "splashed down" and the Russian capsules " bounced down." While the Americans remained in their floating capsules until rescued by the recovery ship's helicopters and frogmen, the Russians (like Gagarin and Tereshkova) ejected from their Vostok craft and came down in separate parachutes. The Vostok capsule had probes protruding from the capsule which, when contacting the ground ignited small rockets to cushion the capsule's landing. The cosmonauts landed minutes later. Both countries used the highly visible red-orange "international orange" color on their parachutes; the U.S. used stripes, and the Russians, concentric circles. As it was impossible to pinpoint the landing locations of these early pioneers returning from space, the oceans gave the Americans broad leeway, as did the large expanse of Russian territory for returning cosmonauts. Neverless, many astronauts and cosmonauts carried passports.

"Splash down" and "Bounce down". As it was impossible to pinpoint the landing of returning capsules, the oceans and large Russian territory gave both programs room for error. Just in case, many astronauts and cosmonauts carried passports. In one situation, 2 cosmonauts had to sleep overnight in the woods, fending off wild animals, before they were reached. Both countries used international orange parachutes; the U.S. used 3 parachutes with stripes, the Russians, one large parachute with concentric circles. The parachute on the Soyuz rescue capsule which returned the 3 astronauts from the ISS, in 2003, when the U.S. shuttle fleet was grounded, was nearly 1 km in diameter.

COMMUNICATIONS SATELLITES AND PEACEFUL USES OF SPACE

In the 1960s, in addition to the "Space Race" and its competition for Cold War advantage and the achievements of "firsts" for national pride, there were also practical scientific developments in space. Among the most significant were communication satellites, represented in the mural by Telstar, a round satellite approximately 35 inches in diameter (slightly larger than Sputnik) which in July 1962, relayed the first television pictures across the Atlantic ocean. It also relayed picture facsimiles, telephone and data. Telstar ushered in an era of rapid international development in communication satellites---as many countries saw its potential to tie together the eyes and ears of the world. Before communication satellites, for example, video tapes of the 1960 Olympic Games in Rome had to be flown by plane to each country for their TV stations to broadcast. The 1964 Olympic Games in Tokyo were broadcast live by communication satellite.

Telstar broadcast the first live television pictures across the Atlantic Ocean in July 1962. Today, there are many communication satellites orbiting the Earth as part of Intelsat, an international consortium. We now take it for granted that we can communicate instantly by telephone, fax, television or computer to any spot on the globe.

A LAST LOOK AT THE MOON

Now abandoned by both countries, all that remains on the desolate lunar landscape, after all the Luna and Apollo missions, are the hardware left behind: Apollo lunar module landing legs and platform, and a Luna. A Lunokhod and Lunar Rover left like abandoned vehicles in a desert.

The mural moves from the 1960s "Competition" phase of the Russian and American development of space (south wall), to the beginning of the "Cooperation" phase in the 1970s (north wall). But first, the mural pauses with one last forlorn look at the Moon (west wall). Now abandoned by both countries, all that remains on the desolate lunar landscape, after all the Luna and Apollo missions, are the hardware left behind: Luna 9 resting on the moon with its side covers in the open position, as when its television cameras were observing the first detailed look at the lunar terrain. An Apollo Lunar Module descent stage with its landing legs and platform from which the ascent stage blasted off. A Lunokhod and a Lunar Rover left like abandoned automobiles in a desert. Luna 17 landed on the Moon on November 17, 1970, and its Lunokhod 1 rover, remotely controlled from Earth, explored the surface for 10 months, covering 6 miles. Luna 21 soft-landed on January 16, 1973, and its Lunokhod 2 rover explored 23 miles of a different section of the Moon. (Luna 16, 20 and 24 successfully dug up soil samples and returned them to Earth). Nicknamed "NASA golf carts", the U.S. Lunar Rovers were used on the Apollo 15, 16 and 17 missions beginning on July 26, 1971, through December 19, 1972. On the Apollo 16 mission, the Rover covered 16 miles and achieved a top speed of 11 mph.

AGE OF COOPERATION BEGINS - SOYUZ/APOLLO

July 1975

The spirit of "Cooperation" officially began in 1975 with the famous Soyuz-Apollo mission. In the midst of the Cold War, Russians and Americans watched on their TVs as veteran astronaut Thomas Stafford and veteran cosmonaut Aleksei Leonov, shook hands through the connection hatch of their Apollo 18 and Soyuz 19 spacecrafts (July 17, 1975). As both governments approved the joint venture, Soyuz Apollo was a sign that the Cold War was thawing---and Soyuz Apollo accelerated the process.

One of the most famous handshakes in history, July 17, 1975, when, in the midst of the Cold War, American astronaut Thomas Stafford and Russian (Soviet) cosmonaut Alexei Leonov shook hands through the connection hatch of their Apollo and Soyuz spacecrafts. With the two governments mired in polarization, the space programs provided a way out---a neutral forum for cooperation. Both govenments embraced the success of Soyuz-Apollo---a sign that the Cold War was thawing. It is believed that this remarkable joint scientific achievement was a major catalyst in moving the two countries toward a policy of cooperation.

LEONOV AND STAFFORD - THE PIONEERS OF COOPERATION

Both Stafford and Leonov were space veterans---both had first flown into space in 1965. Stafford's first flight participated in the first U.S. hook-up with another space craft (Gemini 6&7).

On Leonov's 1965 inaugural flight he made the first space walk. However, once outside his spacecraft, Voskhod 2, Leonov's suit suddenly inflated making it too large to re-enter the capsule. With no time to consult with Ground Control, he tried a risky solution: venting some precious air from his space suit. It worked and he was able to squeeze back into the capsule. (March 18-19, 1965).

Leonov said he "felt like a bird, with wings and able to fly." But his elation ended when his suit suddenly inflated.

BEYOND THE MOON TO THE SOLAR SYSTEM ---THE VENERA SERIES TO VENUS. 1961-1983. VEGA 1&2 - 1984-86.

As the Soviets had a Luna series of missions to the moon, between 1961 and 1983, their Venera series involved 16 spacecraft designed to explore Venus. In October 1967, after a 4 month trip from Earth,Venera 4 transmitted data for 94 minutes as it descended through Venus' clouds---until approximately 15 miles above the surface when it was crushed by the atmosphere. Later Venera probes found the surface temperature to be about 850 degrees Fahrenheit (454 degrees Celsius) and the surface pressure approximately 90 times that of Earth.Veneras 5 & 6 met a similar fate, but a redesigned Venera 7, launched in 1970, equipped with a cooling device, landed on the surface, and transmitted data for 23 minutes. It was the first successful landing of a space craft on another planet in our solar system. Venera 9 through 14 sent the first photographs of the Venus surface; reported the chemical elements in the Venus atmosphere and surface rocks; the surface temperature and pressure; and the presence of lightning. Venera 15 & 16 did not drop landing probes but constructed detailed maps of the surface from orbit using radar radio waves.

Venera 7 was the first space craft to make a successful landing on another planet in our solar system (1970). Previous Venera missions which reached the planet were silenced by overheating or being crushed by the atmosphere. Venera missions recorded the surface temperature at approximately 850 degrees Fahrenheit (454 Celsius) and the surface pressure 90 times that of Earth.Venera carrier space craft remained in orbit above the planet and relayed the landers data to Earth.

Vega 1-2, which explored both Venus and Halley's Comet was an international joint expedition of Russian spacecraft with equipment and probes provided by the U.S. , ESA, France, Japan, and Germany (1984-86).

TO MARS

Between 1962 and 1976, the U.S. and Russia each sent 8 probes to Mars---some flew past the planet, some orbited and some craft landed. The Russian Mars 3 Orbiter and Lander was launched in May 1971, and after a seven month trip reached the "Red Planet" in December 1971 and began its orbit. The lander section separated and descended to the surface by parachute; however, after 20 seconds, for an unknown reason it stopped transmitting. Subsequent landings, including the U.S. Viking 1&2 project (both launched in 1975, arrived and landed in September 1976) transmitted detailed images of the Mars landscape and terrain which have raised the key issue of whether water exists below the surface. In 2002, the NASA Mars Odyssey spacecraft returned data, including data from a Russian instrument it carries, indicating substantial quantities of frozen water near the surface of Mars. In January 2004, two U.S. rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, landed to further explore the water and other issues.

The names Spirit and Opportunity came from a NASA school essay contest to name the rovers, which was won by 9-year old Sofi Collis, born in Siberia, adopted by American parents. Sofi wrote: "I used to live in an orphanage. It was dark and cold and lonely. At night, I looked up at the sparkly sky and felt better. I dreamed I could fly there...(Now) I can make all my dreams come true. Thank you for the spirit and opportunity." NASA Administrator O'Keefe said, "She has in her heritage and upbringing the soul of two great spacefaring countries." Sofi's dream is now to become an astronaut. Her essay is reminiscent of another child's words, "When a warm clear night falls and our town (Yaroslavl) is plunged into sleep, I like to sit at the window and look out at the starry sky."---Valentina Tereshkova.

Is there, or was there, life on Mars? After numerous trips by unmanned spacecraft sent to the Red Planet by the United States, Russia and others, we may be getting closer to the answer. The key issue is whether water, necessary to support life forms known to Earthlings, exists on Mars. In 2002, the U.S. Odyssey spacecraft, using Russian instrumentation, returned data indicating frozen water near the surface of the planet. In January 2004 the U.S. landed 2 rovers, Spirit & Opportunity, which will relay the most detailed data to date.

THE HUBBLE TELESCOPE

Launched in April 1990, the Hubble has looked deeper into space and discovered secrets of the universe unobserved by earth-bound telescopes, including the "Big Bang." As a satellite telescope it can collect data in a variety of wavelengths which would be prevented by the Earth's atmosphere from reaching ground based telescopes (even those like the Lowell Observatory in clear-skied Arizona which discovered Pluto.) The Hubble was designed to be repaired by Space Shuttle astronauts, which was fortunate, because its mirror required a major adjustment in 1993.

Its successor, the Webb Telescope, instead of remaining in earth orbit like the Hubble, will travel a million miles or more from earth in order to view in more detail the "First Light", the earliest glimmers from the first stars and galaxies which formed after the Big Bang---light waves which have traveled so far and for so long that they have been stretched by the expansion of the Universe and changed into infrared wavelengths; the Webb is designed to see the infrared. The mirror of the Webb, 21.3 feet in diameter, is approximately three times the size of the Hubble mirror.

When did the universe begin? The Hubble telescope, about the size of a large school bus, is able to provide more evidence toward answers to that question and others, as it sees deeper and more clearly into the cosmos, than earth-bound telescopes which are inhibited by the Earth's atmosphere. It was named for American astronomer Edwin Hubble who provided observational evidence to support the theory that the universe is expanding.

NASA plans to launch a larger telescope, the James Webb Telescope, in 2011, which is expected to unlock even more secrets of the universe than the Hubble.

EARLY SPACE STATIONS - MIR - THE SPACE SHUTTLE

Skylab launched 1973

American Space Shuttle arrives at the Russian Mir space station - 250 miles above the Earth

The first space stations were small: the first of several Russian Salyuts was launched on April 19, 1971. The U.S. had one station, Skylab, launched May 14, 1973. The first major space station was the Russian Mir, stationed 250 miles above the Earth beginning February 20, 1986. Orbiting the Earth every 89 minutes, its size grew over the years with additional modules, so that it was 5 times its original size when it was decommissioned. Astronauts and scientists from several countries lived, studied and conducted experiments on Mir; many lived there for months at a time. Transportation to and from the station was by the American Space Shuttle and by Soyuz spacecraft. Desiring to concentrate on development of the new International Space Station, Russia "de-orbited" Mir in 2001. Many American and Russian astronauts expressed sadness at the deorbit of Mir because it was the vehicle for extensive cooperation and camaraderie between the participants of the two space programs. (Two American astronauts who served on Mir were honored at the RCC Grand Opening.) The RCC Space Library has a video of the deorbiting of Mir which, because of its large size and lack of aerodynamic shape, required unusual re-entry calculations and procedures to avoid hitting land and to crash safely in the South Pacific.

THE INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION

The International Space Station will be approximately the length of a football field. As of May 2003, the station weighed approximately 200 tons (393,733 lbs). Primarily being built by the U.S. and Russia, other countries are making substantial contributions.

The first sections of the new International Space Station, the Russian Zarya and the U.S. Unity were delivered and connected in November-December 1998. While primarily being built by the U.S. and Russia, the European Space Agency, Japan and Canada are making major contributions. For example, Canada will provide the robotic arms for the ISS as it presently does for the Space Shuttle (the "Canadarm"). Statistics as of May 2003: over 500 contractors from 16 countries are providing support; there have been 35 flights to the ISS---Space Shuttle, Proton, Soyuz crew and assembly flights, Progress resupply flights; there have been 6 Expeditions of crews living and working at the ISS---average stay is 4-6 months; Russia and the U.S. have an equal number of Commanders of the Expeditions---Commanders of Expeditions One - Six were: Shepherd, Usachev, Culbertson, Onufrienko, Korzun, and Bowersox.

THE SOLAR SYSTEM AND BEYOND

The east wall of the mural, the Solar System and beyond, represents the future challenges of space science and exploration. This is not to say it is the distant future, as we have already begun. Space science on the planet Earth has progressed to the point where our probes, carrying sophisticated instruments, travel throughout the solar system, and look beyond, deep into the universe---returning answers to questions which generations ago were thought unanswerable. How did the physical universe begin? When did it begin? How old is the earth? What is the universe made of? How will it end? But many questions remain unanswered. If there was water on Mars, what life forms may have existed, or exist? Does intelligent life in the vast universe of billions of galaxies only exist on the planet Earth? The Science and Exploration of Space continues.

The evolution of Space Science, like Space Exploration, continues. Copernicus argued that the (9) planets in our Solar System orbit around a centered star, the Sun (a heliocentric system), in opposition to the long believed geocentric (earth-centered) system propounded by ancient Greek astronomers, most notably Ptolemy. But Copernicus thought the orbits were circular; subsequent scientists learned they were elliptical. Issac Newton and Einstein developed the theories of gravity which control the motion of the planets and the galaxies. But scientists now believe only 4% of the universe is made of atoms and gravity; the other 96% is made of undefined "dark matter" and "dark energy" (anti-gravity). How will the universe end? Some scientists asserted that the expansion of the universe might be elastic, i.e., it would expand to a point and then collapse on itself in a "Big Crunch." Current consensus is that the galaxies and components of the universe will continue to expand, thinning and cooling and disintegrating, eventually into absolute nothingness.

Educated guesses by scientists as to the age of the universe and how it began differed substantially until the Hubble and probe instruments returned solid evidence. Scientists now believe the universe was created 13.7 billion years ago by the "Big Bang" --- the moment of cosmological conception. This was followed by the "Dark Ages", a period of several hundred million years before the first stars and galaxies began to blink on. Our solar system is "middle-aged" - being formed 4.56 billion years ago---about 9 billion years after the universe began. The size of the universe is still unknown. The distance from the Sun to Pluto is 3.65 billion miles. Presently, our space craft travel approximately 6 months to get to Mars--traveling about 10 million miles per month; at the same speed it would be 35 years to Pluto; to the nearest star, Proxima Centauri (24 trillion miles away), would take 200,000 years to get there. Even traveling at the speed of light would take several years. Traveling at the speed of light would take many lifetimes just to travel from one end of our Milky Way galaxy (of 100 billion stars and roughly 100,000 light years in diameter) to the other. 1996 photographs taken from the Hubble increased the estimated number of galaxies from 10 billion to 50 billion. There may be more. And because the universe is expanding as the billions of galaxies travel away in all directions, the vast size of the universe is (presently) immeasureable.

Scientists now look beyond our Solar System, beyond our Galaxy and many other galaxies---to deep into the Universe to find answers to questions humans have pondered for millennia: is there intelligent life out there? If so, is it more intelligent? Or, are we alone?

THE BIG BANG

The mural ends with the beginning, the Big Bang, the beginning of the Universe, now believed by scientists to have occurred 13.7 billion years ago. In 2003, NASA's Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe, 1 million miles from Earth, captured and more precisely measured the oldest light in the universe, known as cosmic microwave backgound radiation---the light left over from the Big Bang. In 2006 two Americans received the Nobel Prize for "photographing" and dating the "first light" at 380,000 years after the Big Bang: George F. Smoot of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in California and John C. Mather of NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland The results complemented earlier measurements gathered by the Hubble telescope and other instruments.

The 2003 data also suggests that only 4% of the universe is made up of the atoms and forces like gravity with which we are familiar. The remaining 96% of the universe is made from unidentified material called "dark matter" (21-23%), thought to have played a role in the development of the galaxies formed after the Big Bang, and an undefined force (73-75%) called "dark energy" (also known as anti-gravity) which causes the accelerated expansion of the universe. The NASA satellite Swift was launched in 2004 to study the impact of "Black Holes" in the universe.

The Big Bang started when an infinitely small, undefined substance (known as infinite energy and other terms) exploded giving birth to the matter and energy which formed the physical universe. Who or what created the undefined substance which started it all? The Big Bang represents a confluence of science, philosophy and religion---the conclusions of which we leave to each visitor to the Library.

The Big Bang. Probing deep into the universe with satellite telescopes and other instruments, scientists believe they have discovered remnants of the "Big Bang" (in which an unidentified speck of "infinite energy" exploded leading to the formation of the universe) and have documented its occurence at 13.7 billion years ago.

This discovery of the beginning of the physical universe have led some into the metaphysical, i.e., that it proves that only a supernatural being could create something (the speck of "infinite energy") out of absolute nothingness. Metaphysical issues, however, are beyond the scope of this Library which is devoted to science.

LOOKING UP AT THE EARTH

The mural concludes with the ceiling: where you can look up to the beautiful Earth----a perspective experienced by only a few people, the brave travelers in the Exploration of Space.

The Library is being developed as a joint venture between the Russian Cultural Centre, and the Friends of the Russian Cultural Centre.

FROM THE LIBRARY ARCHIVES

Image courtesy of Rosaviakosmos

Image courtesy of NASA

First man in space, Yuri Gagarin. Gagarin's statue in Star City, Russia

First man on moon, Neil Armstrong, reflected in Buzz Aldrin's visor.

Official emblem of Apollo Soyuz Test Project

Images courtesy of NASA

Image courtesy NASA

The beginning of the period of Cooperation, the famous Soyuz-Apollo Handshake in space during the Cold War, Thomas Stafford, Apollo Commander and Aleksei Leonov, Soyuz Commander. Right: Deke Slayton, Docking Module Pilot and Leonov. July 17, 1975.

Apollo-Soyuz was embraced by both governments; Ambassador Dobrynin (above), and President Ford meet with the astronauts and cosmonauts involved in the mission.

Image courtesy of Rosaviakosmos

Image courtesy of NASA

Three major "firsts" in the Space Race---the first man in space, Gagarin, first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova, and the first space walker, Aleksei Leonov.

Two principals in America's attempt to catch up in the Space Race, President Kennedy and Wernher von Braun.

Image courtesy Rosaviakosmos

Image courtesy of NASA

Image courtesy Rosaviakosmos

Image courtesy of NASA

1961 - Yuri Gagarin enroute to historic launch. His flight opened the era of humans in space. He was 27 years old.

1962 - John Glenn enters his capsule, Friendship 7. The first American to orbit the Earth, returned to space at age 77.

1963 - Valentina Tereshkova is helped into space suit by technicians. She would be the only woman in space for 2 decades.

Apollo 11 astronauts, Armstrong, Aldrin, Collins are quarantined against possible moon bacteria on their return.

Image courtesy Novosti Press Agency

Image courtesy NASA

"Bookends" parades of the decade---1961 when hundreds of thousands packed Red Square to salute the feat of Yuri Gagarin. ---1969 when record tons of Wall Street tickertape rained down on the Apollo 11 astronauts.